ATPL Cheat Sheet: All 13 Subjects on One Page

EASA ATPL(A)13 papers257 key facts · 63 exam trapsUpdated Oct 2026

The must-know facts of every EASA ATPL paper on one page: formulas, numbers, limits and rules, then the traps the exams set. Every line comes from the explanations in our question banks and the v1prep Library, which cite the regulation or manual behind them. Use Test yourself to hide the answers and tap each one to check, or print a clean sheet for each paper. The first section of every paper is free to read; the rest is for v1prep members on any paid plan.

Printing gives one page per paper, answers shown.

010

Air Law

44 questions · 1 h 00

The international conventions and ICAO, licensing and medical rules, the rules of the air, airspace and air traffic services, and the PANS-OPS procedures.

Diagram: The class sets who is separated and who is only told: A and B separate everything, C separates VFR from IFR, D only IFR from IFR.

Table of ICAO airspace classes A to G giving, for each class, the flight rules permitted, whether a clearance is needed, the separation ATC provides, the traffic information given and the 250 kt speed limit

ICAO and the conventions

Chicago Convention: Signed December 1944; created ICAO, Montreal; SARPs in 19 Annexes, Annex 19 being Safety Management
Key Annexes: 1 Licensing, 2 Rules of the Air, 6 Operation, 7 Registration marks, 11 ATS, 13 Investigation, 14 Aerodromes, 17 Security, 18 Dangerous goods
Tokyo, Hague, Montreal: Tokyo 1963: offences on board, State of Registration has jurisdiction; Hague 1970: hijacking; Montreal 1971: unlawful acts against safety

The rest of Air Law is for v1prep members: 17 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Licences and medicals (Part-FCL, Part-MED)

Theory exams: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c
Recent experience: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation con
Class 1 medical: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation
Ages: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incid

Rules of the Air

VMC, classes A to E: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor al
Right of way: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ul
Semicircular rule: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c
IFR minimum level: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem eli

Airspace and air traffic services

Airspace classes: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam do
Special squawks: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud am
Alerting phases: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullam
Vertical separation: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididu
Wake turbulence: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adi

Procedures (PANS-OPS)

Holding pattern: exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veni
Holding speeds: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostr
Approach categories: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
Gradients and clearances: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incidi

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit ei
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur i
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum s
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerc
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore mi

Go further: Free practice questions · Practise the full bank · Airspace Classification: Classes A to G · Rules of the Air · ATC Separation · Holding Patterns · Medical Certification · Chicago Convention and ICAO

Back to the subjects ↑

021

Aircraft General Knowledge

80 questions · 2 h 00

Airframe structure and systems (hydraulics, pressurisation, oxygen, fire protection and fuel), aircraft electrics, and piston and gas turbine powerplants.

Diagram: The CSD or IDG holds 400 Hz, and four things must match before two alternators are paralleled: voltage, frequency, phase and phase sequence.

Table of the aircraft AC generation chain: constant speed drive and IDG, rotating field alternator, three-phase star output, generator control unit, split bus and bus tie, transformer rectifier units, static inverter and frequency-wild alternator

Structure and hydraulics

Design philosophies: Safe-life: retired at a set life. Fail-safe: multiple load paths. Damage-tolerant: slow cracks found at normal inspections
Catastrophic failure (CS-25): Must be extremely improbable: of the order of 1 × 10⁻⁹ per flight hour or less
Hydraulic fluids: Mineral DTD 585: red, neoprene seals. Skydrol phosphate ester: purple or green, butyl seals, fire resistant. Never mix
Transport hydraulic pressure: Typically 3,000 psi (some 4,000, A380 and A350 5,000) from constant-pressure, variable-volume pumps
Power transfer unit: Hydraulic motor driving a pump: moves power between two systems without transferring fluid

The rest of Aircraft General Knowledge is for v1prep members: 14 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Pressurisation, oxygen, fire and fuel

Cabin altitude: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna
Crew oxygen (CAT.OP.MPA.285): labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor a
Engine fire protection: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt eni
Jet A-1: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consect

Electrics

Ohm's law and power: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim
Resistors: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore
Battery cells (on load): ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation co
Aircraft AC: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididu
Paralleling alternators: sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c

Engines

Jet thrust: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor d
Compressor stall or surge: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit e
Abnormal starts: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim u
Bleed air extraction: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit ei
Constant-speed unit: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut a

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmo
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation conse
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud a
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetu
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim

Go further: Practise the full bank · Hydraulic System Principles and Fluids · Pressurisation Principles and Control · AC Generators, CSD and IDG · Aircraft Batteries · Gas Turbine Engine Starting · Fire and Overheat Detection

Back to the subjects ↑

022

Instrumentation

60 questions · 1 h 30

Pitot-static and air data instruments, magnetism and compasses, gyroscopes and inertial systems, the radio altimeter, warning systems and automatic flight.

Diagram: Pitot gives total pressure (static + dynamic) to the ASI and Machmeter only; static feeds all four instruments.

Diagram of a pitot-static system: a heated pitot head with drain hole feeding total pressure to the airspeed indicator and Machmeter, cross-coupled static vents and an alternate static source feeding the airspeed indicator, Machmeter, altimeter and VSI, with water traps, the VSI calibrated choke and an independent standby system

Air data

Dynamic pressure: Pitot (total) − static = ½ρV²; the ASI measures it, calibrated for ISA sea-level density (1225 g/m³)
IAS to TAS: IAS → CAS (instrument and position error) → EAS (compressibility) → TAS (density)
Climb schedules: Constant CAS: TAS and Mach rise. Constant Mach: CAS and TAS fall in the troposphere; TAS constant in an isothermal layer
Speed of sound: LSS = 38.95 × √T (kelvin): 661 kt at ISA sea level; Mach = TAS ÷ LSS
Air temperatures: TAT = SAT + full ram rise. From the probe reading: SAT = reading ÷ (1 + 0.2 Kr M²), in kelvin (Kr = recovery factor)
Altimeter errors: About 30 ft per hPa; subscale unchanged, flying towards lower pressure or colder air it over-reads: the aircraft is lower than shown

The rest of Instrumentation is for v1prep members: 14 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Compass and gyroscopes

Acceleration errors (N hemisphere): ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud ame
Turning errors (N hemisphere): labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet t
Gyro rigidity: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt e
Earth rate: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exer
Rate 1 turn: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation con

Inertial and radio altimeter

INS principle: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eius
Ring laser gyro: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn
Radio altimeter: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eius

Warnings and automatic flight

GPWS modes: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod ma
Stall warning margin: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam do
TCAS II: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua e
Aural priority: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
Autoland status: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem e
EFIS colours: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur inc

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ulla
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labo

Go further: Practise the full bank · Pitot-Static System · Airspeed Indicator and Machmeter · Pressure Altimeter · Magnetic Compass · Gyroscopic Principles · Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS / TAWS)

Back to the subjects ↑

031

Mass and Balance

25 questions · 1 h 15

Mass definitions and structural limits, standard masses and weighing, and how the centre of gravity is found, moved and kept within limits.

Diagram: The lowest limit wins: take-off mass is capped by MTOM, the performance limit, MZFM + take-off fuel and MLM + trip fuel.

Table of the mass chain from basic empty mass through dry operating, zero fuel, ramp, take-off and landing mass to traffic load, giving what each step adds, the limit that caps it and the reason for the limit, with notes on the datum, %MAC and loading indices

Mass definitions

Basic empty mass: Airframe, engines, fixed equipment, unusable fuel and full operating fluids; no crew, usable fuel or load
Dry operating mass: BEM + crew and their baggage, catering and passenger service equipment, potable water, lavatory chemicals
Operating mass: DOM + take-off fuel
Zero fuel mass and traffic load: ZFM = DOM + traffic load; traffic load = TOM − operating mass
Useful load (EASA): Traffic load + take-off fuel = TOM − DOM
Ramp and landing mass: Ramp mass = TOM + start-up and taxi fuel; landing mass = TOM − trip fuel

The rest of Mass and Balance is for v1prep members: 14 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Limits

Maximum zero fuel mass: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua
Regulated take-off mass: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna n
Take-off mass for a flight: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua
Maximum traffic load: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor al

Centre of gravity

CG position: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dol
CG in %MAC: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et ve
Moving mass: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliq
Adding or removing mass: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation con
Forward CG: sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ulla
Aft CG: amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore

Standard masses, weighing and fuel

Standard passenger masses: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn
Which table: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet
Weighing: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation
Fuel mass: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud ame

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eius
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor al
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore mini
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur in
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt

Go further: Practise the full bank · Aircraft Mass Definitions · Maximum Structural and Regulated Masses · Standard Masses for Passengers and Baggage · Centre of Gravity · Load and Trim Sheet · Aircraft Weighing

Back to the subjects ↑

032

Performance

45 questions · 2 h 00

Performance classes and runway conditions, take-off speeds and field lengths, the take-off climb and obstacle clearance, climb, cruise and en-route performance, and landing.

Diagram: Twin, one engine out: segment 1 positive, segment 2 2.4%, segment 4 1.2%; the net path is 0.8% lower and must clear obstacles by 35 ft.

Classes and dispatch

Performance class A: All multi-engine turbojets; multi-engine turboprops with more than 9 seats or MTOM above 5,700 kg
Wind for dispatch: Take-off and landing data: no more than 50% of the reported headwind, at least 150% of the reported tailwind
Class B field length: No stopway or clearway: gross take-off distance × 1.25 ≤ TORA

The rest of Performance is for v1prep members: 17 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Take-off

V1 limits: ut ad lorem elit labore minim
V2 (Class A): labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nost
Balanced field: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua ex
Field length (Class A): dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor a
Wet runway (Class A): magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labo
Reduced thrust (assumed temperature): aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad l

Take-off climb and en route

Climb segments: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit
Gross gradients, twin OEI: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn
Net flight path: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exer
En route, one engine out: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipi
Climb gradient: sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercit

Cruise and landing

Range and endurance speeds: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum
Jet landing distance: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit
Class B landing distance: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis
Go-around gradients (Class A): et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliq
VREF: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerci
Hydroplaning speed: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco ad

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consecte
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad

Go further: Practise the full bank · Takeoff Speeds: V1, VR and V2 · Takeoff Climb Segments · Takeoff Flight Path and Obstacle Clearance · Landing Distance · Range, Endurance and Gliding · Wet and Contaminated Runways

Back to the subjects ↑

033

Flight Planning and Monitoring

42 questions · 2 h 00

Fuel planning under the EASA fuel scheme, air and ground distance, the point of equal time and point of safe return, the ICAO flight plan, ETOPS and chart minimum altitudes.

Diagram: Each fuel block answers a different question: contingency is the higher of 5% of trip fuel and 5 min holding, final reserve 30 min at 1,500 ft for turbines.

Table of the blocks of a commercial fuel plan (taxi, trip, contingency, alternate, final reserve, additional, extra or discretionary) with what each covers, how it is derived and the point often missed, plus the difference between MINIMUM FUEL and MAYDAY FUEL

Fuel planning (EASA basic fuel scheme)

Fuel blocks: Taxi, trip, contingency, alternate, final reserve, additional (if required), extra; take-off fuel = block fuel − taxi fuel
Contingency fuel: Higher of 5% of trip fuel and 5 min holding at 1,500 ft above the destination, ISA
Alternate fuel: From a missed approach at the destination to a landing at the alternate; no contingency is added to it
Final reserve fuel: Turbine: 30 min holding at 1,500 ft above aerodrome elevation, ISA. Piston: 45 min
Additional fuel: If the other blocks fall short: engine failure or depressurisation at the critical point, divert, hold 15 min at 1,500 ft above the alternate, land
Isolated aerodrome (turbine): Additional + final reserve fuel = 2 h at normal cruise consumption above the destination
MINIMUM FUEL and MAYDAY FUEL: MINIMUM FUEL: committed to one aerodrome, any change may mean landing below final reserve; no priority. MAYDAY FUEL: predicted landing below final reserve

The rest of Flight Planning and Monitoring is for v1prep members: 13 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Air distance, PET and PSR

Air and ground miles: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod mag
PET distance: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna no
PET and wind: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerc
Engine-failure PET: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt en
PSR time: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ulla
PSR and wind: aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscin

ATC flight plan

Filing and delay: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliq
Item 8: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod ma
Item 9 wake category: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerc
Item 10 equipment: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerc
Item 15 speed and level: sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt

ETOPS and minimum altitudes

ETOPS threshold: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostr
Grid MORA: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod ma

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerci
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamc

Go further: Practise the full bank · Fuel Planning and Fuel Reserves · In-Flight Fuel Management · Alternate Aerodromes · Point of Equal Time and Point of No Return · ATC Flight Plan · Minimum Safe Altitudes and Cold Temperature Corrections

Back to the subjects ↑

040

Human Performance and Limitations

48 questions · 1 h 30

The body at altitude, the senses and their illusions, health, sleep and fatigue, and the psychology of error, decision-making and crew cooperation.

Diagram: Classify an error by the intention: slips, lapses and mistakes are honest errors, violations deliberate departures from the rules.

Table of error types (slip, lapse, rule-based mistake, knowledge-based mistake, violation, mode error) giving what failed, a typical example and what catches it, with notes on the SHELL model, threat and error management, and situational awareness and automation

Respiration and altitude

Gas laws: Boyle: at constant temperature, volume inversely proportional to pressure. Dalton: total = sum of partial pressures. Henry: dissolved gas ∝ pressure
Types of hypoxia: Hypoxic (altitude), anaemic (blood cannot carry oxygen, e.g. CO), stagnant (poor blood flow), histotoxic (cells cannot use it)
Oxygen thresholds: Air up to 10,000 ft; oxygen and air mix to 33,700 ft; 100% oxygen to 40,000 ft; pressure breathing above
Hyperventilation: Washes out CO₂ and raises blood pH; slow the breathing, but at altitude treat it as hypoxia first
Decompression sickness: Nitrogen bubbles (Henry's law): bends, creeps, chokes, staggers; likelier the higher and longer above 18,000 ft

The rest of Human Performance and Limitations is for v1prep members: 15 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Senses and illusions

Vestibular organs: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod mag
Somatogravic illusion: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua e
Runway illusions: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incidi
The eye: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamc
Collision risk: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipi

Health, sleep and fatigue

Alcohol: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore qui
Carbon monoxide: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor ali
Circadian rhythm: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim u
Sleep: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetu

Cognition, error and CRM

Arousal and performance: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et
Short-term memory: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore
Error types (Reason): labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exe
SHELL model: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consec
Threat and error management: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur
Hazardous attitudes: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetu

Exam traps

consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et ven
sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nost
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco ad

Go further: Free practice questions · Practise the full bank · Hypoxia and Hyperventilation · Spatial Disorientation and the Vestibular System · Visual Illusions · Sleep and Circadian Rhythms · Human Error and Accident Causation · Threat and Error Management (TEM)

Back to the subjects ↑

050

Meteorology

84 questions · 2 h 00

The atmosphere and altimetry, stability and cloud, wind, weather hazards such as icing, thunderstorms and fog, and the METAR and TAF codes.

Diagram: The ISA in one table: +15 °C and 1013.25 hPa at sea level, 1.98 °C less per 1,000 ft to 36,090 ft, then a constant −56.5 °C.

Table of the atmosphere's layers from mean sea level to about 60 km, giving the ISA temperature, pressure and density and the practical point for each layer

ISA and altimetry

ISA at mean sea level: +15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, density 1225 g/m³
ISA lapse rate: 1.98 °C per 1,000 ft (0.65 °C per 100 m) up to 11 km (36,090 ft)
ISA above 11 km: Constant −56.5 °C from 11 km up to 20 km (65,617 ft)
Height per hPa: 27 ft per hPa at MSL; about 50 ft at 20,000 ft and 100 ft at 40,000 ft
Temperature error: 4 ft per °C of ISA deviation per 1,000 ft above the pressure datum

The rest of Meteorology is for v1prep members: 15 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Stability and cloud

DALR and SALR: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet te
Absolute stability or instability: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud a
Conditional instability: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tem
Cumulus base estimate: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor al

Wind

Buys Ballot's law: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
Surface wind (northern hemisphere): lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud
Jet stream: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua

Hazards

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Thunderstorm mature stage: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn
Microburst: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor
Radiation fog: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exe

METAR and TAF

CAVOK: exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam
Cloud amounts: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor
TEMPO: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit
Wind reference: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet t

Exam traps

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labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing

Go further: Free practice questions · Practise the full bank · The Atmosphere · Altimeter Settings, Altitude and Height · Atmospheric Stability · Airframe Icing · Thunderstorms · TAF and TREND Forecasts

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061

General Navigation

55 questions · 2 h 15

The Earth, distance and direction, magnetism and the compass, chart projections, time, airspeeds and dead reckoning.

Diagram: On a Lambert chart a straight line is very nearly a great circle; on a Mercator it is a rhumb line. The great circle always lies on the polar side.

A Lambert conformal conic chart and a Mercator chart side by side, each showing the great circle and the rhumb line between the same two points

The Earth and distance

Shape of the Earth: Oblate spheroid, flattening about 1/298; WGS-84 is the reference model for aviation
Nautical mile: 1 NM = 1,852 m (about 6,076 ft); 1° of latitude ≈ 60 NM
Departure: Departure (NM) = ch.long (minutes) × cos latitude
Convergency: Earth convergency = ch.long × sin mean latitude; conversion angle = ½ convergency
Great circle and rhumb line: The great circle lies on the polar side of the rhumb line in both hemispheres

The rest of General Navigation is for v1prep members: 15 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Direction and the compass

Variation and deviation: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn
True to magnetic: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet
Turning errors (northern hemisphere): et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation con
Acceleration errors (northern hemisphere): dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt eni

Charts

Mercator: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis si
Lambert conformal conic: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud
Polar stereographic: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua e
Orthomorphic (conformal): dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitatio

Time

Arc to time: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et ven
International Date Line: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore qui
Civil twilight: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud am

Speeds and dead reckoning

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Speed of sound: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et venia
Climbing at constant CAS or Mach: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
1 in 60 rule: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magn

Exam traps

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tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor
labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exerc
magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing u

Go further: Free practice questions · Practise the full bank · The Earth: Shape, Coordinates and Great Circles · Chart Projections · True, Magnetic and Compass Direction · Magnetic Compass · Time, Sunrise and Twilight · Triangle of Velocities

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062

Radio Navigation

66 questions · 1 h 30

Radio waves and propagation, NDB and ADF, VOR, ILS, DME, radar and SSR, GNSS and performance-based navigation.

Diagram: Three satellites fix the position, the fourth the receiver clock; RAIM needs a fifth to detect a fault and a sixth to exclude it.

Table of GNSS error sources with their typical size and what reduces each, with notes on the GPS constellation, augmentation and RAIM

Radio waves and NDB

Frequency and wavelength: λ (m) = 300 ÷ f (MHz); radio waves travel at 300,000,000 m/s
VHF line-of-sight range: Range (NM) = 1.23 × (√h1 + √h2), heights in ft
NDB: 190 to 1,750 kHz (LF and MF), surface wave; ADF accuracy ±5° within the DOC by day
ADF bearing to the beacon: QDM = magnetic heading + relative bearing (subtract 360 if needed)
Night effect: Sky wave returns at night and distorts ADF bearings; worst at dusk and dawn

The rest of Radio Navigation is for v1prep members: 14 more facts and 4 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

VOR and ILS

VOR: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis
CDI sensitivity: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqu
ILS frequencies: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur in
ILS coverage: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation conse
False glide paths: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamc
Marker beacons: aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim

DME and SSR

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DME accuracy and capacity: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore qui
SSR: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitati

GNSS and PBN

GPS constellation: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam
Satellites needed: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempo
Largest GPS error: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
RNAV and RNP: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet
Accuracy figures: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation c

Exam traps

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sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incid
tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore
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Go further: Practise the full bank · Non-Directional Beacon and ADF · VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) · Instrument Landing System (ILS) · Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) · Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) · Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

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070

Operational Procedures

42 questions · 1 h 15

Operating rules for commercial air transport: minima, alternates, crew limits, wake turbulence, windshear, contaminated runways, emergencies and dangerous goods.

Diagram: The wake sinks below the path that made it: stay above that path and land beyond that touchdown point.

Table of wake turbulence situations showing where the wake lies, the geometry that clears it and the trap in each case, with the ICAO wake categories and radar spacing

Minima and alternates

Approach categories (VAT): A below 91 kt; B 91-120 kt; C 121-140 kt; D 141-165 kt
Lowest circling minima: Cat C: MDH 600 ft, visibility 2,400 m; Cat D: MDH 700 ft, 3,600 m
CAT I: DH not below 200 ft; RVR not below 550 m
Take-off alternate distance: Two engines: within 1 hour at OEI cruise speed in still air; three or four engines: within 2 hours

The rest of Operational Procedures is for v1prep members: 16 more facts and 4 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Crew limits (Part-CAT, ORO.FTL)

Alcohol: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exer
Cumulative duty: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
Cumulative flight time: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consecte
Minimum rest: dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt eni
WOCL: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt eni

Wake turbulence and windshear

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Radar spacing on approach: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet temp
Departure spacing: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation
Microburst on approach: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exer

Contaminated runways

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Runway condition codes: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna no
Take-off depth guide: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercit
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Emergencies and dangerous goods

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Exam traps

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Go further: Practise the full bank · Aerodrome Operating Minima · Flight Time Limitations · Wake Turbulence and Jet Blast · Windshear and Microbursts · Wet and Contaminated Runways · Forced Landing and Ditching

Back to the subjects ↑

081

Principles of Flight

46 questions · 1 h 30

Lift and drag, the stall and high-lift devices, stability, climb, glide and turning flight, and high-speed flight.

Diagram: A wing stalls at an angle, never at a speed: weight and load factor move the stall speed with their square root, the angle stays put.

Airflow over an aerofoil at increasing angle of attack beside a lift curve peaking at CLmax, with a table of how weight, bank, flaps, slats and ice change the stall angle and the stall speed

Lift and drag

Lift equation: L = ½ ρ V² × CL × S, with V the TAS and ½ ρ V² the dynamic pressure
Drag and speed: Parasite drag varies as V², induced drag as 1/V²; CDi = CL² ÷ (π × AR)
VMD: Minimum total drag where induced drag = parasite drag; maximum L/D; VMP is slower

The rest of Principles of Flight is for v1prep members: 17 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Stall and high-lift devices

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CS-25 speed margins: magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt en

Stability

Centre of gravity limits: ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do
Static margin: lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod
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Climb, glide and turns

Climb gradient: incididunt enim ull
VX and VY: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit e
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High-speed flight

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Climb at constant IAS: ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostru

Exam traps

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Go further: Free practice questions · Practise the full bank · Lift · Drag · Stall · High-Lift Devices · Longitudinal Stability · High Speed Flight

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090

Communications

34 questions · 1 h 00

VFR and IFR radiotelephony: transmitting technique, standard words, readback, call signs, distress and urgency, communication failure, position reports and VHF.

Diagram: MAYDAY buys silence, PAN PAN buys priority: the message order, frequency and squawk all follow from that one choice.

Table comparing MAYDAY distress and PAN PAN urgency calls by threshold, message order, frequency, transponder code, ATC action and how each is ended

Transmitting technique

Numbers: 3 TREE, 4 FOW-ER, 5 FIFE, 8 AIT, 9 NIN-ER; decimal DAY-SEE-MAL
Hundreds and thousands: Whole hundreds and thousands of altitude, height, visibility and RVR: 11,000 ft is WUN WUN TOUSAND
Frequencies: All six digits are spoken; only the first four if the last two are zeros
Readability scale: 1 unreadable, 2 readable now and then, 3 readable with difficulty, 4 readable, 5 perfectly readable
Time: UTC; normally the minutes only; time checks to the nearest half minute

The rest of Communications is for v1prep members: 14 more facts and 5 exam traps. Any paid plan unlocks all 13 papers: PRO, Lifetime, Ground School or the Interview Pass.See plans Sign in

Standard words and readback

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Mandatory readback: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipisci
TAKE OFF: et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitati
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Distress and urgency

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Silence and its end: dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incidi
Squawks and frequency: sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut

Communication failure

In VMC: incididunt enim ullamco adipiscing ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam
IFR in IMC: level and speed: ut ad lorem elit labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor ali
IFR in IMC: landing: labore minim ipsum sed et veniam dolor do dolore quis sit eiusmod magna nostrud amet tempor aliqua exercitation consectetur

Reports and VHF

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Exam traps

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Go further: Practise the full bank · Radiotelephony Transmitting Technique · Radiotelephony Phraseology · Radiotelephony Call Signs · Distress and Urgency Communications · Radio Communication Failure

Back to the subjects ↑

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